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C00002 00002 General AI Perspective
C00018 00003 SOURCES OF INFORMATION
C00028 00004 Readings
C00052 00005 Stanford AI Syllabus - 1980 Page 22
C00060 00006 Stanford AI Syllabus - 1980 Page 23
C00069 00007 Stanford AI Syllabus - 1980 Page 24
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General AI Perspective
There are several recent books on AI which attempt to provide an overview.
Of these, [Boden AI] and [Winston AI] are the best starting point. One recent
book ([McCorduck AI]) details the early history and sociology of the field.
Shorter articles which provide long-term perspective are [Minsky STEPS],
[Feigenbaum IFIP], [Lenat UBIQ], and [Nilsson OVERVIEW]. In addition, the AI
handbook will provide an overview of lots of AI issues. [Nilsson AI2] is now
available, and its novel organization cuts across most of the categories on our
list above.
Weak Methods
Classicaly, AI has been associated with a set of methods for problem
solving and search which have been called "weak methods". These include early
work such as GPS [Newell, Shaw, and Simon], notions of heuristic search as
described in [Nilsson AI] and [Handbook SEARCH], and more theoretical ideas abot
problem spaces discussed in [Newell ILL] and at length in [Newell & Simon HPS].
Knowledge Engineering - Expert Systems
Much of current AI work is being subsumed under the heading of "knowledge
engineering". [Bernstein KBS] is a general survey of knowledge based systems.
[Winston AI] gives a general idea of systems of this kind done at MIT, and
[Feigenbaum IJCAI5] describes the general approach. A number of expert systems
have been built in the past few years. [Handbook APPLICATIONS] provides some
overviews and details for most of the recent efforts. Applications to Music
[Moorer][Zaripov] and Art [Gips][Cohen IJCAI6] should also be looked over. The
MIT perspective is covered in [Winston & Brown], V.1, Sec.1.
Knowledge Representation Formalisms
A number of current AI research projects are centered around the
development of knowledge representation languages. Some of the early issues in
representation are discussed in [Amarel ACTIONS] and [Bobrow DIMENSIONS]. More
recent discussions include [Winograd FRAME], [Hayes DEFENCE], and [Winograd
EXTENDED]. Procedural Embedding, Semantic Networks, Conceptual Dependency,
Frames (Scripts, etc.), Production Systems, and Description Languages. These
are all treated well in [Handbook REPRESENTATION].
Planning and Common-sense Reasoning
Much of the AI work related to robotics dealt with the planning of action
sequences. GPS [Newell, Shaw and Simon] was the early classic, and other well
known systems are STRIPS [Fikes, Hart, Nilsson] and NOAH [Sacerdoti NONLINEAR].
An early discussion of the problems is in [McCarthy ADVICE-TAKER].
Programming Languages for AI
List Processing -- LISP
String processing -- SNOBOL
Associative mechanisms -- LEAP/SAIL
Active data structures -- SIMULA/SMALLTALK/ACTORS
Pattern Matching [Bobrow & Raphael]
Data Structures [Knuth Vol.I]
PLANNER, CONNIVER, QA4, etc. [Bobrow & Raphael]
Production Systems [Davis & King OVERVIEW]
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
The following journals (and conferences) present material relevant to AI:
Journal of AI
SIGART
SIGCAS
Machine Intelligence (1 - 9)
IJCAI proceedings (1 - 6)
TINLAP proceedings (1 - 2)
CACM
JACM
Cognitive Psychology
American Journal of Computational Linguistics
Cognitive Science Journal
Cognitive Science Society
The Behavioral & Brain Sciences
AAAI
AISB
Readings
A simple annotation system has been used to give some feeling for the level
and importance (measured idiosyncratically by the tutorial preparers) of each
paper. The level is indicated as:
ESS: An essay giving general perspective and discussion of basic
issues
SURV: A survey of research work in some area
SUM: A summary at a non-detailed level of a specific piece of
research
DR: A detailed research report
TEXT: A textbook
The importance is based on whether the paper is important for understanding
a general perspective (P), whether it has one or more specific important ideas
(I), or whether it gives a set of details worth knowing (D).
A basic background can be acquired via the books marked "@@"; gaps may be
filled with those papers marked "@". These together can be thought of as an
initial reading list.
@@Artificial Intelligence Handbook; [AIHandbook], a comprehensive encyclopedia
of work in AI, prepared by HPP, CS Dept, Stanford U., 1980. (SURV!!)
@Amarel, S. (1968) On Representations of Problems of Reasoning About Actions, in
Machine Intelligence 3, pp. 131-171 (eds Meltzer and Michie), New York:
American Elsevier Publishing Company. (DR,P,I:effects of change of repr. on
problem solubility, )
Barstow, David R., A Knowledge Base Organization for Rules about Programming,
Proc. IJCAI5, 1977, 382-388 (DR)
Bernstein, M.I., Knowledge-Based Systems: A Tutorial, TM-(L)-5903/000/00A, SDC,
June 1977 (SURV,P)
Bobrow, Dan, and Allan Collins, editors, Representation and Understanding, New
York: Academic Press, 1975 (a collection of papers, each at least (SUM,I))
See esp. "Dimensions of Repr." and Woods' "What's in a Link?"
Bobrow and Raphael, (1973) New Programming Languages for AI Research, Computing
Surveys, 6, 1974, 155-174. (SURV, I) Still quite relevant, after all these
years.
Bobrow, D. and T. Winograd An Overview of KRL, a Knowledge Representation
Language, Cognitive Science, 1, 1977, 3-46 (SUM,I: controlled processing and
matching)
Boden, Margaret A. Artificial Intelligence and Natural Man, New York, Books,
Inc., 1977 (TEXT & SURV,P) Probably the best comprehensive nontechnical
introduction to AI.
Brachman, R.J., What's in a Concept: Structural Foundations for Semantic
Networks, Int'l J. Man-Machine Studies, 9, 1977, 127-152 (DR,P)
Chase, W.G., editor, Visual Information Processing, Academic Press, New York,
1973. (Collection, each of which is at least (SUM, )) See esp. Newell
"Production Systems: Models of Control Structures".
Davis, Randall Generalized Procedure Calling and Content-Directed Invocation,
Proc. ACM Symposium AI & PL, 1977, 45-54 (SURV,I: procedures should state
their effects)
Davis, Randall, Meta-Level Knowledge: Overview and Applications, Proc IJACI5,
1977, 920-927 (SUM,I: meta-knowledge)
@Davis, Randall, and Jonathan King An Overview of Production Systems, in Machine
Intelligence 8, E. Elcock and D. Michie (eds), Chichester, Ellis Horwood,
1977 (SURV,P)
Davis, Randall, Bruce Buchanan, and Edward Shortliffe, Production Rules as a
Representation for a Knowledge-Based consultation Program, Artificial
Intelligence, 8, 1977, 15-45 (DR,I: organization and use of knowledge,
computer-based consultation)
Erman, L.D. and V.R. Lesser A Multi-level Organization for Problem Solving
Using Many Diverse Cooperating Sources of Knowledge, Proc IJCAI4, 1975, 483-
490 (DR,I: modular knowledge sources, blackboard)
@@Feigenbaum, Edward A., and Feldman, Julian, editors, Computers and Thought,
[C&T], McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, New York, 1963. Old but almost
each article is still quite worth a careful reading; to name a few:
Feigenbaum, Gelernter, Newell et al, Turing, Armer, Minsky. (Collection;
some (ESS,), most (SUM,I))
@Feigenbaum, E.A. The Art of Artificial Intelligence: Themes and Case Studies
of Knowledge Engineering, Proc IJCAI5, 1977, 1014-1029 (SURV,I: use of large
amounts of domain-specific knowledge)
Funt, Brian WHISPER: A Problem-Solving System Utilizing Diagrams, Proc IJCAI5,
1977, 459-464 (SUM,I: analogical reasoning may buy us some nice properties)
Green, Cordell, and Barstow, David, "On Program Synthesis Knowledge", Artificial
Intelligence, Volume 10, Number 3, November 1978, pages 241-279. (DR, I)
Hayes, Patrick J. Some Problems and Non-Problems in Representation Theory, AISB
Summer Conference, 1974 (ESS & SURV, D)
Hunt, Earl B., Artificial Intelligence, Academic Press, Inc., New York, New
York, 1975. (TEXT, D:good coverage of pattern recog. and perceptrons)
International Joint Conferences in Artificial Intelligence, held biannually
since 1969; proceedings available from program chairmen; best indicator of
current research trends. Abbreviated "IJCAI".
Jackson, Philip C., Jr., Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, Petrocelli
Books, New York, New York, 1974. Elementary; if you feel lost in some
subfield, consult this. (TEXT, )
Kling, Robert E., A Paradigm for Reasoning by Analogy, Artificial Intelligence,
2, 1971, pp. 147-178. (SUM, I:similar to Evans' idea, but analyzed further.)
Lenat, Douglas B., BEINGS: Knowledge as Interacting Experts, Proc IJCAI4, 1975,
126-133 (DR, I:beings)
@Lenat, Douglas B., Automated Theory Formation in Mathematics, Proc IJCAI5,
1977, 833-842 (DR,I: heuristics to generate search)
Lenat, Douglas B., and John McDermott, Less Than General Production System
Architectures, Proc IJCAI5, 1977, 928-932 (SURV, I: gain power by sacrificing
generality)
Victor Lesser, Richard Fennell, Lee Erman and D. Raj Reddy, Organization of the
Hearsay II Speech Understanding System, IEEE Symposium on Speech Recognition,
Computer Science Dept., Carnegie Mellon Univ., 1974. (SUM, I:modular system
organiztion)
McCarthy, J., [ADVICE-TAKER] "Programs With Common Sense", Stanford AI Memo
AIM-7,,AD785044, 7 pages, September 1963. For details, also look at also the
following memo: (ESS, I:what we need is...)
McCarthy, J. and Hayes, P. (1969) Some Philosophical Problems from The
Standpoint of AI. Machine Intelligence 4 (eds Meltzer and Michie) pp. 463-
502. Edinburgh University Press. (ESS/DR: I/D: More of the same as the last
reading. Further developed.)
McCarthy, J., Epistemological Problems of Artificial Intelligence, Proc.
IJCAI5, 1977, 1038-1044 (ESS,I: what is AI still missing?)
Meltzer, Bernard, and Michie, Donald, editors, Machine Intelligence, volumes 1-
6, American Elsevier Publishing Company, New York, New York, volumes 7-8,
Halstead Press, New York; volumes 9- , John Wiley & Sons, New York. Almost
annually (since 1967). Needless to say, don't study every article.
(Collection of articles, each at least (SUM, )).
Meltzer, Bernard, and Bobrow, Daniel, editors, Artificial Intelligence: An
International Journal, North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands, quarterly (since 1970). (Collection of articles, each at least
(SUM, )).
Moore, Robert Carter, Reasoning about Knowledge and Action, Proc IJCAI5, 1977,
223-227 (SUM,I)
@Newell, A. (1969) [ILL] Heuristic Programming: Ill-Structured Problems, in (ed.
Aronofsky, A.) Progress in Operations Research III, John Wiley and Sons.
(ESS, P)
Newell, A. (1965) Limitations of The Current Stock of Ideas about
Problem:Solving. Proceedings of a Conference on Electronic Information
Handling, pp. 195-208. (eds Kent and Taulbee) New York: Spartan. (ESS,
interesting reading)
@Newell, A., and Simon, Herbert A., [HPS] Human Problem Solving, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1972, xvi + 920 pages. Read the first and last
chapters, look over Chaps. 3,4,8. (DR/ESS/SUM, D:know what LT and GPS were,
what a PBG is, production systems)
Nilsson, N. J. (1974) [OVERVIEW] Artificial Intelligence, SRI Technical Note 89
(March, 1974), and also Information Processing 74, North-Holland: Amsterdam,
1975 (SURV)
Nilsson, Nils J., [AI] Problem-solving Methods in Artificial Intelligence,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, New York, 1971 (TEXT, but I/D:Good
presentation of resolution, searching, β, etc.)
Nilsson, Nils J., Principles of Artificial Intelligence, Tioga, Palo Alto, 1980.
(TEXT, attempts a new synthesis of much of the field) [AI2]
Sacerdoti, Planning in a Hierarchy of Abstraction Spaces, Proc IJCAI3, 1973,
412-422 (SUM, I:planning is just searching a sparser, more abstract space)
Sacerdoti, E., The Nonlinear Nature of Plans, Proc IJCAI4, 1975, 206-214 (DR,I:
the title)
[S&C] Schank, R. and Colby, K. Computer Models of Thought and Language, San
Francisco: Freeman, 1973 (Collection; Note especially chapters 1,4,5,6)
Schank, Collins, and Charniak, eds., Cognitive Science, journal, published
quarterly since 1977 by Ablex Publishing Co, New Jersey
Schatz, B.; "The Computation of Immediate Texture Discrimination" MIT Artificial
Intelligence Laboratory, AI Memo 426, August 1977. (DR)
Schmidt, C.F., and N.S. Sridharan, Plan Recognition Using a Hypothesize and
Revise Paradigm: An Example, Proc IJCAI5, 1977, 480-486 (SUM,I)
Proc IJCAI5
Proc IJCAI5
Proc IJCAI5
Schubert, L., Extending the Expressive Power of Semantic Networks, Proc IJCAI4,
Proc IJCAI4
Proc IJCAI4
Proc IJCAI4
1975, 158-164 (DR,I: how to represent quantification, etc, in semantic nets)
Schwartz, Jacob T., On Programming: An Interim Report on the SETL Project,
On Programming: An Interim Report on the SETL Project
On Programming: An Interim Report on the SETL Project
On Programming: An Interim Report on the SETL Project
revised, Computer Science Department, Courant Institute of Mathematical
Sciences, New York University, New York, New York, June 1975.
Shortliffe, Edward, MYCIN: Computer-Based Medical Consultations, New York:
MYCIN: Computer-Based Medical Consultations
MYCIN: Computer-Based Medical Consultations
MYCIN: Computer-Based Medical Consultations
American Elsevier, 1976. (DR,I: automated diagnosis)
@Shortliffe, Davis, Axline, Buchanan, Green, and Cohen, Computer-based
Consultations in Clinical Therapeutics: Explanation and Rule Acquisition
Capabilities of the MYCIN System, preprint for article in Volume 8 of the
Journal for Computers in Biomedical Research, June, 1975. (SUM, I:Medical
Journal for Computers in Biomedical Research
Journal for Computers in Biomedical Research
Journal for Computers in Biomedical Research
application of production systems; communication with experts)
Shrobe, Howard, Richard Waters, and Gerald Sussman, A Hypothetical Monologue
Illustrating the Knowledge Underlying Program Analysis, MIT LCS Memo 506,
January 1979. (ESS,)
SIGART Newsletter, Special Interest Group on Artificial Intelligence (SIGART),
SIGART Newsletter
SIGART Newsletter
SIGART Newsletter
Association for Computing Machinery, New York, New York, quarterly (if you
believe that, you probably will have trouble passing the qual). (SURV/SUM, )
Simmons, R. (1965) Answering English Questions by a Computer: A Survey, CACM 8,
CACM
CACM
CACM
1; January, 1965, pp. 53-70. (SURV, gives reasonable picture of state of art
at that time)
Simmons, R. (1970) Natural Language QA Systems. CACM 13, 1; Jan., 1970, pp. 15-
CACM
CACM
CACM
30. (SURV, gives reasonable picture of state of art at that time)
Simon, Herbert A., How Big is a Chunk?, Science, 1974, 183, 482-488 (ESS)
Science
Science
Science
@Simon, H (1973) Lessons from Perception for Chess-Playing Programs (and vice
versa), CMU Computer Science Research Review 1972-1973, pp.35-40. (ESS I)
Simon, Herbert A., and Siklossy, Laurent, editors, Representation and Meaning:
Representation and Meaning:
Representation and Meaning:
Representation and Meaning:
Experiments with Information Processing Systems, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Experiments with Information Processing Systems
Experiments with Information Processing Systems
Experiments with Information Processing Systems
Cliffs, New Jersey, 1972, xx + 440 pages, (collection of CMU dissertations
each (SUM or DR)) See esp. Simon's "On Reasoning About Actions" (SUM,P)
Stanford AI Syllabus - 1980 Page 22
Sloman, Aaron (1971) Interactions Between Philosophy and Artificial
Intelligence: The Role of Intuition and Non-Logical Reasoning in
Intelligence, Journal of AI, 2, 1971, pp. 209-225. Provocative. (ESS, P
Journal of AI
Journal of AI
Journal of AI
looking for philosophical implications of AI work)
Sloman, Aaron, The Computer Revolution in Philosophy, Humanities Press, 1979.
The Computer Revolution in Philosophy
The Computer Revolution in Philosophy
The Computer Revolution in Philosophy
Smith, Brian C., Levels, Layers, and Planes: The Framework of a System of
Knowledge Representation Semantics, unpublished Masters thesis, Dept. of E.E.
& C.S., M.I.T., 1978. (DR,I: new directions in representation and meaning)
@Smith, R.G., T.M.Mitchell, R.A. Chestek, and B.G.Buchanan, A Model for Learning
Systems, Proc IJCAI5, 1977, 338-343 (SURV, P)
Proc IJCAI5
Proc IJCAI5
Proc IJCAI5
Soloway, Elliot M. and Edward M. Riseman, Levels of Pattern Description in
Learning, Proc IJCAI5, 1977, 801-811 (DR,I)
Proc IJCAI5
Proc IJCAI5
Proc IJCAI5
Sussman, G., and D.V.McDermott, From Planning to Conniving: A Genetic Approach,
Proc ACM FJCC, 1972 (SUM, I:where Planner went wrong, and Conniver doesn't)
Proc ACM FJCC
Proc ACM FJCC
Proc ACM FJCC
Szolovits, P., L.B. Hawkinson, and W.A. Martin, An Overview of OWL, an language
for knowledge representation, M.I.T. LCS-TM-86, 1977. (SUM)
Thomas,A.J. and T. O. Binford; "Information Processing Analysis of Visual
Perception: A Review"; Stanford AI Lab Memo AIM-227, CS-408, 1974. (SURV,
ESS)
Vere, Steven A., Induction of Relational Productions in the Presence of
Background Information, Proc. IJCAI5, 1977, 349-355 (DR,)
Proc. IJCAI5
Proc. IJCAI5
Proc. IJCAI5
@Walker, Donald E., William H. Paxton, et al., Procedures for Integrating
Knowledge in a Speech Understanding System, Proc IJCAI5, 1977, 36-42 (SUM,I)
Proc IJCAI5
Proc IJCAI5
Proc IJCAI5
Waltz, David (ed.), TINLAP-2: Theoretical Issues in Natural Language Processing,
TINLAP-2: Theoretical Issues in Natural Language Processing,
TINLAP-2: Theoretical Issues in Natural Language Processing,
TINLAP-2: Theoretical Issues in Natural Language Processing,
an interdisciplinary workshop in computational linguistics, psychology,
an interdisciplinary workshop in computational linguistics, psychology,
an interdisciplinary workshop in computational linguistics, psychology,
an interdisciplinary workshop in computational linguistics, psychology,
linguistics, and artificial intelligence, University of Illinois, June 1977.
linguistics, and artificial intelligence
linguistics, and artificial intelligence
linguistics, and artificial intelligence
(a collection of papers, mostly SUM)
Waterman, D., and F. Hayes-Roth, Pattern-Directed Inference Systems, New York,
Pattern-Directed Inference Systems
Pattern-Directed Inference Systems
Pattern-Directed Inference Systems
Academic Press, 1978 (a collection of papers, mostly SUM; good coverage of
state-of-the-art work in production systems) See esp. Duda et al; Hayes-Roth,
Waterman, & Lenat.
Weiner, N. The Human uses of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society, Anchor
The Human uses of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society
The Human uses of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society
The Human uses of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society
1954. (ESS, P)
Weizenbaum, J., ELIZA, CACM 1966, 9, 36-45. (SUM, I:It's easy to pretend
CACM
CACM
CACM
intelligence by reflective listening, or, more generally, by very careful
selection of the task to be performed)
@Weizenbaum, Joseph, Computer Power and Human Reason, San Francisco,
Computer Power and Human Reason
Computer Power and Human Reason
Computer Power and Human Reason
W.H.Freeman, 1976 (ESS, I: we should be aware of the larger implications of
our work)
Stanford AI Syllabus - 1980 Page 23
Weyhrauch, R. Prolegomena to a theory of mechanized formal reasoning. Stanford
A.I. Memo, 1979 (DR,P)
Wickelgren, Wayne A., How to Solve Problems: Elements of a Theory of Problems
How to Solve Problems: Elements of a Theory of Problems
How to Solve Problems: Elements of a Theory of Problems
How to Solve Problems: Elements of a Theory of Problems
and Problem-solving. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1974.
and Problem-solving
and Problem-solving
and Problem-solving
Integrates Newell and Polya's ideas. (DR, I:Reconciling Polya and one of his
students, A. Newell)
Wilks, Y., Natural Language Understanding Systems within the AI Paradigm: A
Survey and Some Comparsions, AIM-237, Stanford U., 1974 (SURV,P)
@Winograd, Terry, "Five Lectures on Artificial Intelligence", Stanford AIM-246,
CS459, ADA000085/1WC, 93 pages, September 1974. (ESS, P)
Winograd, Terry, Understanding Natural Language, Academic Press, Inc., New York,
Understanding Natural Language
Understanding Natural Language
Understanding Natural Language
New York, 1972, viii + 191 pages, $10.00. See paper in Schank and Colby or in
5 Lectures for summary. (DR, I:Procedural knowledge in an integrated
system).
Winograd, Terry, Frame representations and the declarative/procedural
controversy, in Bobrow & Collins (ed), Representation & Understanding, 1975
Representation & Understanding
Representation & Understanding
Representation & Understanding
(ESS, I:modularity of knowledge structures, frames)
Winograd, T., On some contested suppositions of generative linguistics about the
scientific study of language, Cognition, 5, 1977 (reply to earlier article by
Cognition
Cognition
Cognition
Drescher and Hornstein) (ESS,P)
Winograd, Terry, Towards a Procedural Understanding of Semantics, Revue
Revue
Revue
Revue
Internationale de Philosophie, 1976 fasc. 3-4 (117-118). (ESS,I: procedural
Internationale de Philosophie
Internationale de Philosophie
Internationale de Philosophie
semantics in linguistics)
Winston, P. H. (1972) The M.I.T. Robot, Machine Intelligence 7, American
Machine Intelligence 7
Machine Intelligence 7
Machine Intelligence 7
Elsevier Pub. (SURV, I:Heterarchical systems)
@Winston, Patrick H., editor, The Psychology of Computer Vision, McGraw-Hill
The Psychology of Computer Vision
The Psychology of Computer Vision
The Psychology of Computer Vision
Publishing Company, New York, New York, 1975, $18.00. Mostly MIT vision
work. See Minsky's FRAMES paper, Shirai's, Waltz's, Winston's. (Collection,
each at least (DR/SUM, ))
@@Winston, P. and R. Brown, eds., Artificial Intelligence: An MIT Perspective,
Artificial Intelligence: An MIT Perspective
Artificial Intelligence: An MIT Perspective
Artificial Intelligence: An MIT Perspective
(2 volumes), M.I.T., 1979. Copies available from MIT, library, and TW. This
subsumes the 1974 memo "New Progress in Artificial Intelligence". (SURV,
Collection of summaries)
@Winston, Patrick H., Artificial Intelligence, Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1977
Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence
(TEXT, P) (one of the best overviews of the field)
Woodham, R.J.; "A Cooperative Algorithm for Determining Surface Orientation from
a Single View"; Proc IJCAI5, 1977, 635-641. (DR)
Proc IJCAI5
Proc IJCAI5
Proc IJCAI5
Woods, W. A. and Makhoul, J. (1973) Mechnical Inference Problems in Continuous
Speech Understanding. Proc IJCAI3, pp. 200-207. This describes a partly-
Proc IJCAI3
Proc IJCAI3
Proc IJCAI3
implemented system. For the final story, see Woods' article in IEEE
Transactions on ASSP, February, 1975. (SUM, I:Incremental simulation)
Stanford AI Syllabus - 1980 Page 24
Woods, W., M. Bates, B. Bruce, and B.L.Nash-Webber, Uses of Higher Level
Knowledge in a Speech Understanding System, SIGART, April 1976 (SUM,I)
SIGART
SIGART
SIGART
Yakimovsky, Y. and Feldman, J. (1973) A Semantics-Based Decision Theory Region
Analyzer. Proc IJCAI3, Advanced Papers pp 580-8. (SUM, I:pruning using real-
Proc IJCAI3
Proc IJCAI3
Proc IJCAI3
world constraints)